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the twenty-first century, depending on assumptions about carbon emissions. The current trajectory is already outpacing projections. vintage 20 years sabaton music band shirt  The scientific evidence for global warming is based on several markers. Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere have increased. Current CO

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Joyette , Lashley and Warner, Jin . Social protection programmes include cash and in-kind transfers to protect poor and vulnerable households from the impact of economic shocks, natural disasters and other crises , and can build generic adaptive capacity and reduce vulnerability when combined with a comprehensive climate risk management approach Devereux, Lemos . International transport hubs, including airports and ports, and the associated mobility of people are major economic contributors to most large cities even while under the governance of national authorities and international legislation. Shipping, freight and aviation systems have grown rapidly, and little progress has been made since AR on replacing fossil fuels, though some trials are continuing Zhang, Bouman , EEA. Aviation emissions do not yet feature in  but could be reduced by between a third and two-thirds through energy efficiency measures and operational changes. On shorter intercity trips, aviation could be replaced by high-speed electric trains vintage 20 years sabaton music band shirt drawing on renewable energy Åkerman. Some progress has been made on the use of electricity in planes and shipping Grewe , though no commercial applications have arisen. Studies indicate that biofuels are the most viable means of decarbonizing intercontinental travel, given their technical characteristics, energy content and affordability Wise . The lifecycle emissions of bio-based jet fuels and marine fuels can be considerable Cox , IEA, g depending on their location Elshout , but can be reduced by feedstock and conversion technology choices de Jong .

The long-lived urban transport, water and energy systems that will be constructed in the next three decades to support urban populations in developing countries and to retrofit cities in developed countries will have to be different to those built in Europe and North America in the th century, if they are to support the required transitions . Recent literature identifies energy, infrastructure, appliances, urban planning, transport and adaptation options as capable of facilitating systemic change. It is these aspects of the urban system that are discussed below and from which options in Section . are selected. Cities are also places in which the risks associated with warming of ., such as heat stress, terrestrial and coastal flooding, new disease vectors, air pollution and water scarcity, will coalesce see  and Bartlett. Unless adaptation and mitigation efforts are designed around the need to decarbonize urban societies in the developed world and provide low-carbon solutions to the needs of growing urban populations in developing countries, they will struggle to deliver the pace or scale of change required by .-consistent pathways  . The pace and scale of urban climate responses can be enhanced by attention to social equity , urban ecology Brown and , a and participation in sub-national networks for climate action Cole, Jordan . Section . of this chapter outlines existing rates of change and attributes of accelerated change. Section . identifies global systems, and their components, that offer options for this change. Section . documents the enabling conditions that influence the feasibility of those options, including economic, financial and policy instruments that could trigger the transition to .-consistent pathways. Section . assesses mitigation and adaptation options for feasibility, strategies for implementation and synergies and trade-offs between mitigation and adaptation. The impacts of a .-warmer world, while less than in a -warmer world, would require complementary adaptation and development action, typically at local and national scale. From a mitigation perspective, .-consistent pathways require immediate action on a greater and global scale so as to achieve net zero emissions by mid-century, or earlier . This chapter and Chapter highlight the potential that combined mitigation, development and poverty reduction offer for accelerated decarbonization. projected that the earth’s average temperature would rise by during

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