such as renewables; changing food systems, such as diet changes away from land-intensive animal products; electrifying transport hippie every little thing is gonna be alright peace symbol shirt and developing ‘green infrastructure’, such as building green roofs, or improving energy efficiency by smart urban planning, which will change the layout of many cities.
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Government policy usually plays a role in promoting or limiting GPTs, or science and technology in general. It has impacts on climate action, because the performance of further climate technologies will partly depend on the progress of GPTs. Governments have established institutions for achieving many social, and sometimes conflicting goals, including economic growth and addressing climate change , which include investment in basic research and development R&D that can help develop game-changing technologies Shayegh . Governments are also needed to create an enabling environment for the growth of scientific and technological ecosystems necessary for GPT development . A multilevel approach considers that adaptation planning is affected by scale mismatches between the local manifestation of climate impacts and the diverse scales at which the problem is driven Shi . Multilevel approaches may be relevant in low-income countries where limited financial resources and human capabilities within local hippie every little thing is gonna be alright peace symbol shirt governments often lead to greater dependency on national governments and other organizations, to strengthen adaptation responses Donner , Adenle . National governments or international organizations may motivate urban adaptation externally through broad policy directives or projects by international donors. Municipal governments on the other hand work within the city to spur progress on adaptation. Individual political leadership in municipal government, for example, has been cited as a factor driving the adaptation policies of early adapters in Quito, Ecuador, and Durban, and South Africa Anguelovski , and for adaptation more generally Smith . Adaptation pathways can help identify , and encourage social learning approaches across multiple levels of stakeholders in sectors such as marine biodiversity and water
Bottom-up studies estimating the use of renewable energy in the future, either at the global or at the national level, are plentiful, especially in the grey literature. It is hotly debated whether a fully renewable energy or electricity system, with or without biomass, is possible Jacobson , or not Clack , Heard , and by what year. Scale-up estimates vary with assumptions about costs and technological maturity, as well as local geographical circumstances and the extent of storage used Ghorbani , REN. Several countries have adopted targets of renewable electricity as this meets multiple social, economic and environmental goals and contributes to mitigation of climate change . One barrier to a greater rate of change in energy systems is that economic growth in the past has been coupled to the use of fossil fuels. Disruptive innovation and socio-technical changes could enable the decoupling of economic growth from a range of environmental drivers, including the consumption of fossil fuels, as represented by .-consistent pathways UNEP, Newman. This may be relative decoupling due to rebound effects that see financial savings generated by renewable energy used in the consumption of new products and services Jackson and Senker, Gillingham , but in and total global GHG emissions have decoupled absolutely from economic growth IEA, g; Peters . A longer data trend would be needed before stable decoupling can be established. The observed decoupling in and was driven by absolute declines in both coal and oil use since the early s in Europe, in the past seven years in the United States and Australia, and more recently in China . In , decoupling in China reversed by due to a drought and subsequent replacement of hydropower with coal-fired power , but this reversal is expected to be temporary . Oil consumption in China is still rising slowly, but absolute decoupling is ongoing in megacities like Beijing see Box .. There are actions across all sectors that can substantially reduce greenhouse gas emissions. This Special Report assesses energy, land and ecosystems, urban and infrastructure, and industry in developed and developing nations to see how they would need to be transformed to limit warming to .. Examples of actions include shifting to low- or zero-emission power generation,
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